CCNA

                            Chapter 1

                            Networking

Networking is the construction or process of connecting multiple networks as they can communicate properly. Network is a collection of physical devices like Computers, Routers, Switches, Hub, Bridges, Gateways, and Firewall etc.

Network Segmentation:-  Breaking of large network into small networks is called network segmentation.

Network Devices:-

Routers: - Routers are used to connect networks together and route packets of data from one network to another. Routers break up a broadcast domain. When the router’s interface receives this broadcast it discard the broadcast without forwarding it on to other networks.

Functions of Router: - There are following function of a router.

A). Path Selection

B). Packet Filtering

C). Packet Switching

D). Internetwork Communication

Router is a Layer 3 device and support Layer 3 addressing called IP Address. It uses IP address to send packets. Router maintain a table called Routing table that contains all best route to reach destination,

Routers use a routing table o make path selections and to forward packets to destination network.

Switch:-  By default, switches break up collision domains, Switches create separate collision domains, but a single broadcast domain. Switch is a Layer 2 device by default. It forwards frames using MAC address.  MAC address is a 48 bit permanent address; this is also called physical address.

Firewall:-  A firewall is a network security system, either hardware- or software-based, that controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on a set of rules.

 OSI (Open System Interconnection) Model 

OSI model was introduced in 1970 to define standard for networking systems. The OSI has seven different layers, which are divided into two groups.

1. Host Layers: - Define how the applications within the end stations will communicate with each other and with users.

2. Media Layers:- define how data is transmitted end-to-end.

Application Layer :- User communicate to the computer using Application layer, for example, file transfers, e-mail, remote access, network management activities, client/server   processes, and information location.

Presentation Layer: - Present data of application layer. Data encryption and decryption is performed by this layer.

Session Layer: - Responsible for making, managing, and then terminate sessions between Presentation layer entities. It keeps the data different of different application.

Transport Layer :- Provide end to end data transfer service. It breaks the data into small segments. It use two protocol TCP and UDP for data transfer. Transport layer also perform Windowing, Flow control and virtual circuit.

                             

Network Layer: - Responsible for transferring data through data which are not locally attached. Segments are divided into packets by Network layer. There are two types of packets on this layer:

                         

 1. Data packets

 2. Route Update packets.

Data Link Layer: - Data Link layer ensures that messages are delivered to the proper device. It formats the data packets into frames and attaches header containing source and destination device MAC address.

Physical Layer: - Send and receive bits and communicate to actual media. Bits contain value either 1 or 0.

                                                                                                             Chapter 2                                                           Network Protocols

The DOD model is a Brief version of the OSI model, it has four layers.

     1.       Application layer

   2.       Host to Host Layer

   3.       Internet Layer

   4.       Network Access layer  

                                                 

                                

   DOD and OSI Layers

TCP/IP Model Protocols

Application Layer Protocols

Telnet:- It is a protocol that allows a user to access Telnet server or machine remotely through command line.

TFTP:-  TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer file over the network. It does not provide the directory browsing feature. So to use this protocol we must know the exact file name and location of file.

FTP:-  FTP(File Transfer Protocol)  is actual file transfer protocols. We can transfer data or file using the FTP protocol. FTP is not just a protocol, It is a program also that provide directory browsing feature and let users select data what they need to transfer.

SMTP:- SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send E-mail messages. It is responsible for successful message delivery. It continuously check queue for messages, as message comes in queue it process that message to deliver.

LPD:- (Line Printer Daemon) is designed for printer sharing. It allows to send print command over the network.

X Window:- X Window defines a protocol for writing client/server applications

based on a graphical user interface (GUI). The idea is to allow a program, called a client,

to run on one computer and have it display things through a window server on another computer

SNMP:- (Simple Network Management Protocol) is used to collect information about network. It is also called watchdog over the network. When any problem occur in network SNMP send alert to the management machine.

NFS:- NFS(Network File System) is used for file sharing. It allows to different file systems to share data.

                                        Transmission Control Protocol

TCP:- TCP(Transmission Control Protocol) take data payload from upper layers and break them into segments.TCP is a connection oriented protocol , it means tit create a virtual circuit before transfer data segments. It is also called hand shaking.   During this initial handshake, the two TCP layers also agree on the amount of information that’s going to be sent before the recipient’s TCP sends back an acknowledgement. With everything agreed upon in advance, the path is paved for reliable communication to take place.

Destination port :- The port number of the application requested on the destination host.

Sequence number :- Puts the data back in the correct order or retransmits missing or damaged

data, a process called sequencing.

Acknowledgement number:- Defines which TCP octet is expected next.

Header length:-  The number of 32-bit words in the TCP header. This indicates where the data

begins. The TCP header (even one including options) is an integral number of 32 bits in length.

Reserved:- Always set to zero.

Code bits :- Control functions used to set up and terminate a session.

Window :- The window size the sender is willing to accept, in octets.

Checksum :- The cyclic redundancy check (CRC), because TCP doesn’t trust the lower layers

and checks everything. The CRC checks the header and data fields.

Urgent :- A valid field only if the Urgent pointer in the code bits is set. If so, this value indicates

the offset from the current sequence number, in octets, where the first segment of non-urgent

data begins.

Options:- May be 0 or a multiple of 32 bits, if any. What this means is that no options have to be

present (option size of 0). However, if any options are used that do not cause the option field to total

a multiple of 32 bits, padding of 0s must be used to make sure the data begins on a 32-bit boundary.

Data :-  Handed down to the TCP protocol at the Transport layer, which includes the upper layer

headers.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP):- UDP is a connectionless transport layer protocol. The term connectionless means it does not create virtual circuit before start transfer data or it does not send SYN and Ack packets. UDP does not sequence the segments and does not care in which order the segments arrive at the destination. Because of this, it’s referred to as an unreliable protocol.UDP is very fast than TCP but not reliable. So where we need speed to transfer data we use UDP Ex. VOIP, for reliable communication we use TCP.

Port Numbers:- All protocols have a predefined port number on which they receive data or packets. To send data there must be both port number for source and destination, Source port assign randomly or dynamically but destination port number always be well known. Ports from 0 to 1023 are well known ports.

Internet Layer Protocol

1. IP
2. ARP
3. ICMP
4. Proxy ARP

IP  :-  IP receives segments from the Host-to-Host layer and fragments them into datagram’s  if necessary. IP then reassembles datagram’s back into segments on the receiving side. Each datagram is assigned the IP address of the sender and of the recipient. Each router that receives a datagram makes routing decisions based on the packet’s destination IP address.

TTL:- The time to live  is set into a packet when it is originally generated. If it doesn’t get

to where it wants to go before the TTL expires, This stops IP packets from  looking for a destination        .

Protocol:-  Port of upper-layer protocol. Also supports Network layer protocols.

Header checksum: - Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) on header only.

Source IP Address: - 32-bit IP address of Source Device.

Destination IP address: - 32-bit IP address of the destination device.

IP options:- Used for network testing, debugging, security.

Data:- After the IP option field will be the upper-layer data.

ARP:- Address Resolution Protocol is used to resolve MAC address from IP address. If IP doesn’t find the destination host’s hardware address in the ARP cache, it uses ARP to find MAC.

ICMP:- Internet control messaging protocol is a management and messaging protocol for IP.

Proxy ARP:- Proxy ARP can actually help machines on a subnet reach remote subnets without configuring routing or even a default gateway. Proxy Using ARP will definitely increase the amount of traffic on your network segment, and hosts will have a larger ARP table than usual in order to handle all the IP-to-MAC address mappings 

  Connecting to Router :-We can connect Cisco router using Telnet, SSH, Console Cable and ASDM. ASDM provide GUI console, But command line interface is the best way to configure a Cisco router.

Logging to Router :-After router boot process complete Press Enter. Router will prompt router>. This is User Exec Mode.

This mode is used to view the settings of router.

To change the router configuration you have to switch to Privilege Exec and Global Configuration mode.

To enter in Privilege Exec Mode type:-  enable and press enter

Ex. Router > enable   

Router #

To exit from privilege mode :-

Router # logout

Or

Router # disable

Global Configuration Mode :- Change we make in this mode will affect the entire router.

To enter in global configuration mode:-

If you make any change here, it will save in running config file or RAM. To save changes in startup config or NVRAM enter the following command

Copy runnig-config startup-config

How to configure cisco router interfaces:- To configure interface use interface command in global configuration mode

Router(config)# interface ?

Ex:- 

Choose interface which you wants to configure, I am going to configure FastEthernet.

R1(config)#interface fastEthernet 0/0

R1(config-if)#

Notice that the prompt changed to Router(config-if)#?  This tells you that you’re in interface configuration mode. And wouldn’t it be nice if the prompt also gave you an indication

of what interface you were configuring?

Available commands in mode :-You can use ? to check available commands in any mode

Set Clock in router:-

R1#clock set

R1#clock set ?

  hh:mm:ss  Current Time

R1#clock set 11:46:50 ?

  <1-31>  Day of the month

  MONTH   Month of the year

R1#clock set 11:46:50 29 september ?

  <1993-2035>  Year

R1#clock set 11:46:50 29 september 2015?

<1993-2035>

R1#clock set 11:46:50 29 september 2015

R1#

*Sep 29 11:46:50.000: %SYS-6-CLOCKUPDATE: System clock has been updated from 01:22:08 UTC Fri Mar 1 2002 to 11:46:50 UTC Tue Sep 29 2015, configured from console by console

Router Command History:-

Command	Result
Ctrl+P or Up arrow	Shows last command
Ctrl+N or Down arrow	Shows previous commands entered
show history	Shows last  commands
show terminal	Shows terminal configurations and history buffer size
terminal history size	Changes buffer size (max 256)

Ex. Show history:-

Ex. Show terminal command

Change history buffer size :-

Setting Passwords: - There are five passwords used to secure your Cisco routers: console, auxiliary, telnet (VTY), enable password, and enable secret.

Enable Passwords

You set the enable passwords from global configuration mode like this:

Router(config)#enable ?

last-resort :- Define enable action if no TACACS servers

respond

Password:-  Assign the privileged level password

Secret:-  Assign the privileged level secret

use-tacacs:- Use TACACS to check enable passwords

The following points describe the enable password parameters:

Last-resort:-  Allows you to still enter the router if you set up authentication through a TACACS

server and it’s not available. But it isn’t used if the TACACS server is working.

Password :- Sets the enable password on older, pre-10.3 systems, and isn’t ever used if an enable

secret is set.

Secret :-  encrypted password that overrides the enable password if it’s set.

Use-tacacs This tells the router to authenticate through a TACACS server. It’s convenient if you

have anywhere from a dozen to multitudes of routers, because, well, would you like to face the fun

task of changing the password on all those routers? If you’re sane, no, you wouldn’t. So instead,

just go through the TACACS server, and you only have to change the password:

Router(config)#enable secret cisco        

User mode password:- User-mode passwords are assigned by using the line command:

Router(config)#line ?

<0-70> First Line number

aux Auxiliary line

console Primary terminal line

tty Terminal controller

vty Virtual terminal

Auxiliary Password

To configure the auxiliary password, go into global configuration mode and type line aux ?.

 Router#config t

Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.

Router(config)#line aux ?

<0-0> First Line number

Router(config)#line aux 0

Router(config-line)#login

Router(config-line)#password cisco

It’s important to remember the login command, or the auxiliary port won’t prompt for

Authentication.                                               

Console Password

To set the console password, use the line console 0 command.  

Router(config)#line console 0

Router(config-line)# password cisco1

Router(config-line)# login

Additional Commands

Router(config)#line con 0

Router(config-line)#exec-timeout ?

<0-35791> Timeout in minutes

Router(config-line)#exec-timeout 0 ?

<0-2147483> Timeout in seconds

<cr>

Router(config-line)#exec-timeout 0 0

Router(config-line)#logging synchronous

The exec-timeout 0 0 command sets the timeout for the console EXEC session to zero, which basically means to never time out. The default timeout is 10 minutes

Logging synchronous stops annoying console messages from popping up and disrupting the input you’re

trying to type. The messages still pop up, but you are returned to your router prompt without your input interrupted.

Telnet Password

To set the user-mode password for Telnet access into the router use the following command

Router(config-line)#line vty 0 ?

<1-4> Last Line Number

<cr>

Router(config-line)#line vty 0 4

Router(config-line)# password cisco2

Router(config-line)# login

Encrypting Your Passwords

By default only secret password is encrypted, all other passwords are in plain text. To encrypt all passwords we have use following command

Router(config)#service password-encryption

Routing :- Routing :- Routing is used for taking a packet from one device and sending it through the network to another device on a different network. The logical network address of the destination host is used to get packets to a network through a routed network, then the hardware address of the host is used to deliver the packet from a router to the correct destination host.

To be able to route packets, a router must know, at a minimum, the following:

 ·  Destination address

·   Neighbour routers from which it can learn about remote networks 

· Possible routes to all remote networks

· The best route to each remote network

 · How to maintain and verify routing information

The router builds a routing table that describes how to find the remote networks. If a network

is directly connected, then the router already knows how to get to it. If a network isn’t

Connected, the router must learn how to get to the remote network in two ways: by using static

Routing, meaning that someone must hand-type all network locations into the routing table, or

Through something called dynamic routing.

The router builds a routing table that describes how to find the remote networks. If a network

is directly connected, then the router already knows how to get to it. If a network isn’t

Connected, the router must learn how to get to the remote network in two ways: by using static

Routing, meaning that someone must hand-type all network locations into the routing table, or

Through something called dynamic routing.

There are three types of routing

1.       Static

2.       Default

3.       Dynamic

  Static Routing

  Static routing occurs when you manually add routes in each router’s routing table.  Static routing has the following benefits:

  No CPU overhead

  No bandwidth usage between routers

  Only Administrator can choose allowed network

  Static routing has the following disadvantages:   

  Administrator must really understand the internetwork and how each router is connected

  in order to configure routes correctly.

  Administrator has to add a route to it on all Routers manually.

  Not feasible in large networks because maintaining it would be a full-time job in itself

  Command Syntax

  ip route [destination_network] [mask] [next-hop_address or exitinterface]

  [administrative_distance] [permanent]

  IP route:-  The command used to create the static route.

  

  Destination network: - The network you’re placing in the routing table.

  

  Mask: - The subnet mask being used on the network.

  

  Next-hop address:-The address of the next-hop router that will receive the packet and forward

  it to the remote network.

  Exit interface: - You can use it in place of the next-hop address if you want, but it’s got

to be on a point-to-point link, such as a WAN. This command won’t work on a LAN such

as Ethernet.

Administrative distance :-  By default, static routes have an administrative distance of 1 (or

even 0 if you use an exit interface instead of a next-hop address). You can change the default

value by adding an administrative weight at the end of the command.

Permanent  :-If the interface is shut down, or the router can’t communicate to the next-hop

router, the route will automatically be discarded from the routing table. Choosing the permanent

option keeps the entry in the routing table no matter what happens.

Example:-

Router(config)#ip route 172.16.3.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.2.4

 The ip route command tells us simply that it is a static route.

 172.16.3.0 is the remote network we want to send packets to.

 255.255.255.0 is the mask of the remote network.

 192.168.2.4 is the next hop, or router, we will send packets to.

How to enable default routing on cisco router

Default Routing

We use default routing to send packets with a remote destination network not in the routing

table to the next-hop router. You can only use default routing on stub networks those with

only one exit path out of the network.

To configure a default route, you use wildcards in the network address and mask locations

of a static route.

In this topology we are going to configure Default Routing on R1

To configure default routing on R1 command is :- 

R1(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 10.1.1.2

To check routing table command is 

R1#show ip route

Dynamic Routing

Dynamic routing is when protocols are used to find networks and update routing tables on routers.

 A routing protocol defines the set of rules used by a router when it communicates routing information between neighbor routers.

Routing Protocols

RIP

EIGRP

OSPF

IS-IS

BGP

Routing Protocol Basics

There are some important things you should know about routing protocols before getting

deeper into RIP. Specifically, you need to understand administrative distances, the three different

kinds of routing protocols, and routing loops. We will look at each of these in more detail

in the following sections.

Administrative Distances

The administrative distance (AD) is used to rate the trustworthiness of routing information

received on a router from a neighbour router. An administrative distance is an integer from 0 to

255, where 0 is the most trusted and 255 means no traffic will be passed via this route.

If a router receives two updates listing the same remote network, the first thing the router

checks is the AD. If one of the advertised routes has a lower AD than the other, then the route

with the lowest AD will be placed in the routing table.

 The advertised route with the lowest metric will be placed in the routing table. But if

both advertised routes have the same AD as well as the same metrics, then the routing protocol

will load-balance to the remote network.

Default Administrative Distances

Connected interface                       0

Static route                                     1

EIGRP                                            90

IGRP                                              100

OSPF                                              10

RIP                                                 120

External EIGRP                             170

Unknown                                       255 (Invalid Route)

Routing Loops

A routing loop is a situation where a packet keeps getting routed between two or more routers because of problems in the routing table. In case of distance vector protocols, the fact that these protocols route by rumor and have a slow convergence time can cause routing loops.

Split Horizon

solution to the routing loop problem is called split horizon. This reduces incorrect routing

information and routing overhead in a distance-vector network by enforcing the rule that

routing information cannot be sent back in the direction from which it was received.

In other words, the routing protocol differentiates which interface a network route was

learned on, and once this is determined, it won’t advertise the route back out that same interface.

Route Poisoning

Another way to avoid problems caused by inconsistent updates and stop network loops is route

poisoning. For example, when Network 5 goes down, Router E initiates route poisoning by

advertising Network 5 as 16, or unreachable (sometimes referred to as infinite).

This poisoning of the route to Network 5 keeps Router C from being susceptible to incorrect

updates about the route to Network 5. When Router C receives a route poisoning from Router E,

it sends an update, called a poison reverse, back to Router E. This ensures all routes on the segment

have received the poisoned route information.

Routing Information Protocol .

Route poisoning and split horizon create a much more resilient and dependable distancevector

network than we’d have without them, and they serve us well in preventing network

loops.

Hold-down

A hold down prevents regular update messages from reinstating a route that is going up and

down (called flapping). Hold down  prevent routes from changing too rapidly by allowing time for either the downed route to come back up or the network to stabilize somewhat before changing to

the next best route. These also tell routers to restrict, for a specific time period, changes that

might affect recently removed routes.

When a router receives an update from a neighbor indicating that a previously accessible network

isn’t working and is inaccessible, the hold down timer will start. If a new update arrives

from a neighbor with a better metric than the original network entry, the hold down is removed

and data is passed. But if an update is received from a neighbor router before the hold down

timer expires and it has an equal or lower metric than the previous route, the update is ignored

and the hold down timer keeps ticking. This allows more time for the network to stabilize before

trying to converge.

Hold downs use triggered updates that reset the hold down timer to alert the neighbor routers

of a change in the network. Unlike update messages from neighbor routers, triggered updates

create a new routing update that is sent immediately to neighbor routers because a change was

detected in the internetwork.

There are three instances when triggered updates will reset the hold down timer:

The hold down timer expires.

Another update is received with a better metric.

A flush time, which is the time a route would be held before being removed, removes the

route from the routing table when the timer expires.